The Souls of Black Folk Summary
Description
Here you will find a The Souls of Black Folk summary (W. E. B. Du Bois's book).
We begin with a summary of the entire book, and then you can read each individual chapter's summary by visiting the links on the "Chapters" section.
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Last Updated: Monday 1 Jan, 2024
Chapters
Chapters The Souls of Black Folk Summary Overview
The collection of fourteen essays, originally published in 1903, provides an immersive exploration into the African American experience in the post-Civil War South. The narrative primarily revolves around the Black community and the trials they faced in their newfound freedom, while also shedding light on the transformation of white society in the post-emancipatory period. The author punctuates each essay with a relevant verse or song segment that he refers to as "a bar of sorrow songs", that he believes to be echoes of the haunting melodies borne from the hardships faced by their African American composers. Racial inequality and injustice in the South are highlighted through numerous real-life examples. The essays are organized in a way that offers readers a historical perspective—each one focusing on a specific aspect of the evolution of Black society. Early chapters delve into the history and immediate effects of Emancipation, while later chapters critique influential figures, such as Booker T. Washington, and policies like the Atlanta Compromise that the author believes limited the progress of Black society. The author emphasizes the barriers to progress, such as lack of education and opportunities, and describes the resultant socioeconomic stagnation of Black communities, particularly in the South. Two chapters are dedicated to the author's personal experiences in rural Georgia, contrasting his upbringing in New England with the stark disparities he witnessed in the South. The author also employs mythological analogies to further explicate the challenges faced by Black men, and provides an insightful examination of the religious customs prevalent in the Black communities of the South. The concluding chapters of the collection utilize anecdotal evidence to underline the disparity between white and Black societies. These narratives include the author's reflections on the premature death of his son, tributes to an unyielding world-traveling preacher, and a lament about a student whose potential was thwarted by unfortunate circumstances. The author stresses that while these individuals may not feature prominently in history, their experiences are nonetheless significant. The final chapter features a variety of "Sorrow Songs," which the author describes as the "spiritual heritage of the nation.” Throughout the essays, the author deftly employs historical facts and anecdotal evidence to elucidate how slavery and its repercussions have molded both Black and white societies, particularly in the South. The key issue underscored is the lack of resources and opportunities for Black people at the start of the 20th century, and the pressing need for change.
chapter 1
Du Bois addresses the silent question about the experience of being a problem for the Black community. He recalls his first realization of racial difference when a schoolmate rejected a card from him. This incident led him to view himself as separated from the white society by a "vast veil." Instead of trying to fit into their world, he distanced himself, looking down upon white society from his “region of blue sky and great wandering shadows.” He took pride in outperforming white children academically and athletically. Over time, however, he sees white children enjoy privileges he can't. Du Bois observes the other Black students' reactions to racial disparities. Some become subservient to white society while others harbor resentment. He discusses the unique reality of Black existence, living in a "double-consciousness" and viewing themselves through the lens of white society. He emphasizes the struggle of managing "double aims," satisfying white society, evading their contempt but remaining loyal to their own people. Post the Emancipation, the Black community gained progress through suffrage and education. Yet, many issues persist. Forty years after freedom from slavery, Du Bois notes, “the freedman has not yet found in freedom his promised land.” He credits education for transforming the liberated child into a self-aware, self-respecting youth. Education not only imparted knowledge but also enabled Black individuals to view themselves differently. It highlighted the hurdles they faced such as economic inequality, educational deficits, and bias. In concluding, Du Bois proposes that Black society should evolve, aligning with "the greater ideals of the American Republic." He underscores that American culture owes much to Black society—be it music or folklore. He advocates for an approach where Black society assimilates American ideals and at the same time, influences these ideals to reflect their values and experiences.
chapter 2
Du Bois underscores how the "problem of the color line" defines the 20th century and highlights the period from 1861 to 1872. He emphasizes that the Civil War was essentially about slavery, contrary to the proclamations of the contemporary Congress and President. He illuminates how the treatment of escaped slaves varied across states, indicating a significant issue of the war. Edward Pierce from Boston, who investigated conditions for slave refugees, is mentioned. Pierce initiated a project to transform slaves into "free workingmen,” but there was still a need to provide work for the increasing number of refugee slaves in places like Washington, New Orleans, and Vicksburg. Able-bodied refugees were recruited into the military, while others were provided with work. Several Freedman's Aid societies, introduced by Du Bois, provided essential support to the refugees. However, the overall conditions for freedmen were worsening. Building a labor force from the freedmen was challenging; many didn't work and those who did often didn't receive payment. The solution was to open seized estates to employ and school the freedmen within what Du Bois terms as "strange little governments." The granting of land to freedmen following Sherman's raid through Georgia under "Field-order Number Fifteen" is also discussed. Legislation that rented land to freedmen, handled by the Treasury Department, initially eased military efforts, but the army soon regained control. Finally, in 1865, after several failed attempts, the "Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands" was established. This Bureau, granted the power to provide rations, clothing, and land to former slaves, marked the federal government's commitment to the welfare of freedmen. When Oliver Howard took over as Commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau, he found it riddled with corruption. Howard placed a commissioner in each seceded state to ensure freedmen's rights and establish institutions like schools and marriage. However, the Bureau faced the challenge of applying these systems and securing confiscated southern lands for freedmen. In 1866, Congress decided to extend and expand the Freedmen's Bureau, but President Andrew Johnson vetoed the move. Despite this, a revised version of the bill passed, giving the Bureau its final shape. Du Bois reflects on the enormous challenges faced by the Bureau, exacerbated by persistent racism in the South, and notes that the Bureau, despite its achievements, was doomed from the outset. The Freedmen’s Bureau failed to deliver on the promise of “40 acres and a mule.” Its crowning achievement was the establishment of free schools among Negroes and promoting the concept of free basic education across southern classes. However, its judicial system, intended to shield freedmen from the biased Southern courts, only fueled more tension between whites and freedmen. The government eventually sought to end treating freedmen as wards of the state and instead granted them voting rights. Du Bois observes, however, that “Negro suffrage ended the civil war by beginning a race feud.” The Freedmen’s Bureau was replaced by the Fifteenth Amendment, which enshrined Black men's right to vote in the Constitution. Despite this, Du Bois argues that many Southern blacks remained unfree due to segregation, biased judicial practices, economic instability, and limited rights.
chapter 3
Du Bois commends Booker T. Washington's achievements, with the Atlanta Compromise standing out as his most substantial accomplishment. This agreement had Southern Black individuals consenting to white governance in return for fundamental education and legal protections. Despite Washington's Southern roots, he managed to find favor with the North, a feat Du Bois acknowledges. Yet, while he sees Washington as a significant figure for Black representation, Du Bois believes there is room for critique. A major concern Du Bois has with Washington's work is its emphasis on "adjustment and submission". Du Bois struggles with the idea that Washington's success seems to affirm the supposed inferiority of Black people. He argues that arrangements like the Atlanta Compromise that advocate for submission can't be endorsed. He asserts that, in times of crisis, other races have preached the importance of dignity over material possessions, and a race that willingly forsakes this respect isn't worth civilizing. Furthermore, Du Bois takes issue with Washington's appeal to Black individuals to surrender political power, halt the push for civil rights, and renounce higher education. These requests, Du Bois argues, have led to the erosion of rights, the establishment of Black people as a lower social strata, and the depletion of resources for higher education. In Du Bois's view, Washington's approach has mainly generated industrial laborers, notwithstanding the demand for more Black educators, which necessitates advanced education. He suggests that the demands for Black society should be voting rights, civil equality, and education tailored to individual capability. He contends that the peace Washington established with the South post-war was bought at the expense of the "industrial slavery and civic death" of Black men in the South.
chapter 4
After completing his studies at Fisk University, Du Bois lands a job as a teacher in a modest rural settlement, complete with a simple log cabin school. The school's simplicity contrasts starkly with his New England education, yet he finds joy in teaching. He spends his evenings visiting families whose children irregularly attend school due to home responsibilities or parental skepticism about education. In his time there, Du Bois forms a deep connection with the community, often lodging with different families. After a two-year stint, he leaves the town. A decade later, Du Bois, back at Fisk University, yearns to visit his old teaching grounds. However, the town and its inhabitants have not experienced much growth. A sturdier school building now stands, but its insides remain much the same. His former students have either taken over family businesses or passed away. Du Bois is saddened as he notes, "death and marriage had stolen youth and left age and childhood there." He reflects on the feasibility of progress as he departs, particularly because one of his brightest students is no more and the town remains unchanged. His poignant thoughts accompany him on his journey to Nashville, in the segregated car of the train.
chapter 5
Du Bois draws upon the ancient tale of Hippomenes and Atalanta to illustrate Atlanta, Georgia's situation. He reminds us that Hippomenes won a race by distracting Atalanta with golden apples, so he could marry her. Du Bois notes the moral of the story: don't confuse the golden apples, or distractions, with the real goal of the race. He cautions about Atlanta's growing focus on wealth accumulation over civil rights and equality. He expands on this metaphor, lamenting the scarcity of superior educational opportunities for Black individuals in the South, including both craft workers and academics. Du Bois expresses that the South's real need is knowledge and culture, which is often sidelined in the chase for wealth. He stands firm in his belief that a robust higher education system, encompassing both vocational schools and advanced universities, is key to progress. According to Du Bois, the purpose of education and society should be to enhance living standards. He states that we need to instill ideals, pure and lofty life goals, not base money-making or "apples of gold."
chapter 6
Du Bois underscores the significance of education for all, not just those on a higher education track, as a means to elevate life quality. He critiques the notion that education solely as job training can resolve societal issues, asking, “Training for life teaches living; but what training for the profitable living together of Black men and white?” He also raises concerns about hastily set-up schools in response to the South's industrial revolution, doubting the benefit of such "industrial schools" that simply turn individuals into commodities. Segregation, particularly in the South, he argues, impedes any form of education between different racial groups, despite the necessity of such interaction for societal advancement. He recounts the placement of thirty thousand educators in the South within a single generation, a move that drastically reduced illiteracy among the Black population and laid the foundation for tertiary education. However, he acknowledges that the quality of these new higher education establishments varies, leaving many students underprepared. Despite the flaws, he notes the successes of Black college graduates who have become influential educators and community figures. Reaffirming his argument, Du Bois emphasizes that higher education is vital for societal transformation and racial harmony.
chapter 7
Du Bois recounts his train journey through Georgia, a state known for housing the most substantial Black community in America during that period. He delves into Georgia's history, noting conflicts with the Cherokee and Creek natives who were displaced to give rise to the "cornerstone of the Cotton Kingdom." Albany, in his view, emerges as a bustling "real capital" attracting a diverse crowd on weekends. Venturing through the Albany countryside, Du Bois notes the stark contrast between the impoverished field workers in Dougherty County and the once thriving million-dollar cotton industry in the region. He depicts the cycle of debt binding the laborers to the landowners, and likewise the landowners to the market heads. The prevalent sentiment in the county, he observes, is one of bitterness and disenchantment. However, he also touches upon pockets of prosperity in the county's northwest, largely inhabited by Caucasians and a few successful individuals from both ethnicities. Despite this, he reports instances of Black citizens facing injustice, including forcible land acquisition after legal purchase.
chapter 8
Du Bois likens the fields of cotton to the golden fleece in mythology, emphasizing the increased value and growth of the cotton industry since the Civil War. Despite the number of whites involved, he asserts that Black workers are central to the industry, attributing the debt prevalent in the Black Belt to the remnants of slavery and the aftermath of emancipation. Du Bois highlights the overpopulation in the homes in Dougherty County, comparing it to large cities. He explores the effects of slavery on the marital traditions of Southern Blacks. The selling or moving of married slaves often led to remarriage and though many view marriage traditionally post-Emancipation, broken families where separations occurred are common. He then touches on the shift from slave labor to indebtedness to town merchants. These merchants loan to poor farmers against their future crops, yet the farmers remain in perpetual debt due to contract terms and declining crop value, while the merchants amass wealth. Du Bois observes the initial migration to the Black Belt as a means of safety, but notes a return migration to towns in search of better opportunities. In Dougherty County, high land rent rates prevent most Black farmers from owning land.
chapter 9
Du Bois comments on the damaging impact of European expansion on undeveloped nations. He advocates for a future where people uphold “the good, the beautiful and the true,” instead of encouraging “greed and impudence and cruelty.” He then proposes that the racial tension in the South could provide insights into potential future racial conflicts. He highlights several aspects of Southern life that contribute to racial misunderstandings. He first discusses the role of segregation in promoting negative stereotypes among races. Next, he criticizes the economic exploitation prevalent in the South, which he contrasts with the labor unions and trade laws of the North and Europe. He highlights that this exploitation harms both white and Black workers. The third way races interact, according to Du Bois, is through “political activity,” which, due to post-war corruption and force, has led to Southern Blacks becoming disillusioned with politics and viewing it as a “method of private gain by disreputable means.” Du Bois further unpacks the elements of the government that dissuade Black people from participating. He discusses the limited control Black people have over lawmaking, enforcement, and allocation of tax funds. Despite acknowledging the emancipated Black population’s need for “economic and spiritual guidance,” he critiques the lack of true representation in leadership. He suggests that such oppressive systems inevitably lead to increased Black crime, reinforcing white Southern racist beliefs. Instead of prioritizing education to address crime, the system focuses on harsher penalties and perpetuates a prejudiced legal system. Du Bois then describes the lack of intellectual community between Black and white communities in the South, stating that “there is almost no community of intellectual life or point of transference where the thoughts and feelings of one race can come into direct contact and sympathy with the thoughts and feelings of the other.” He suggests that the absence of open dialogue reinforces stereotypes, fosters antagonism, and hinders progress. He calls for mutual understanding and sympathy in order for a better future to be possible.
chapter 10
In this section, Du Bois uncovers the importance of religion in Black Southern communities. He highlights the distinct and intense expressions of worship he noticed, which were not present in the North. He attributes this to African spiritual traditions and labels the church as the social hub for Black Americans. Du Bois contemplates the church's role in reinforcing morality, maintaining family values, and setting standards for what is deemed 'Good and Right.' Various states have Black churches for around every 60 families, a testament to their widespread acceptance. The church, Du Bois notes, provided refuge and a sense of control during slavery times, contributing to its success. The Black church, predominantly Baptist and Methodist, predates even the Black household. The significant role religion played in the abolition movement is also emphasized. However, Du Bois notices a shift as the church struggles to adapt to social changes. The bond between the church and its followers' socio-political and economic statuses weakens. This has resulted in two opposing ideologies, with hypocrisy in the North and radical tendencies in the South. The disparity in living conditions between the two regions has widened this gap. The impacts of this separation, he observes, are visible in the modern Black church of the early 20th century.
chapter 11
Du Bois shares the sorrow of losing his infant son, grappling with the harsh reality of his child growing up under the shadow of racial discrimination, the Veil. His son's untimely death due to sickness brings him immense grief and anger, as he has always faced the trials of bigotry head-on and feels he doesn't deserve such agony. As Du Bois walks through the town, he experiences a disconnection from the world, untouched by his personal loss. The racial insults from white folks catch him off guard, leading him to a bitter reflection - his son was fortunate to escape the Veil and bigotry. Filled with a sense of injustice, Du Bois wonders why he couldn't trade places with his son, who was set to enjoy a nurturing environment and a promising future.
chapter 12
This section pays homage to Alexander Crummell, a revered clergyman and buddy of Du Bois. Crummell, born before the Civil War and raised by a bitter, racist father, had to grapple with three major life challenges: hatred, despair, and doubt. Despite these adversities, he didn't let resentment cloud his heart, and was eventually accepted into an abolitionist school in Oneida County, New York. Feeling called to priesthood, Crummell faced rejection due to his race from the General Theological Seminary of the Episcopal Church. However, he didn't succumb to despair but instead founded his own church in New England. Regrettably, the church saw a decline in attendance, largely owing to the sparse Black population in the region. Du Bois applauds Crummell's resistance to doubt, arguably the strongest of the three trials. After facing rejection at churches in Philadelphia and New York, he wandered to England and Africa. Two decades later, he returned to his homeland, dedicating his life to uplifting the young and old, the weak and strong alike. Du Bois regards Crummell's life as extraordinary, ending this section with a lament over Crummell's relative obscurity at the time of his death.
chapter 13
Du Bois shares the story of John Jones, an ex-pupil who left his humble Southern town, Altamaha, to pursue education at Wells Institute in Johnstown. Supported by his kin and disregarded by white locals, he faces challenges but successfully completes high school and attends college. His experiences with racial discrimination make him somewhat jaded and resentful. During a New York visit, he was ejected from a theater due to his color. Upon returning home after college, he found himself alienated, as he was no longer the boy the locals remembered. He sought employment as a teacher at the local Black school. Judge Henderson employed him under the expectation that he would “teach the darkies to be faithful servants and laborers.” However, after a month, John was dismissed due to suspicions that he was instilling his students with radical thoughts. That same evening, Henderson's son pursued John's sister, Jennie, into the woods. John, returning home, stumbled upon the scene, attacked young Henderson with a branch, killing him. John bid his mother farewell, expressing his intention to head North for freedom. He then sat on a stump at the property's edge, awaiting what he presumed to be his lynching led by Judge Henderson. As the mob arrived, John stood, maintaining his dignity, and listened to the wind.
chapter 14
Du Bois delves into the discussion of "sorrow songs," describing them as the Nation's unique spiritual legacy and the most significant contribution from the African American community. He discusses the evolution of these songs, tracing their origins back to slavery, and explains how they've been passed down through generations by wandering musicians. While Du Bois admits he lacks formal music education, he emphasizes the significance of the songs' powerful messages. In his discussion, he presents various songs, noting that while most convey sorrow, they also encapsulate hope and a relationship with nature or the earth. He explains the differing styles and the common categories they fall into. A significant number of these songs have religious influence, featuring verses and narratives from the Bible. Du Bois then identifies three fundamental contributions from the African American community to the American society: the gift of narrative, the gift of physical labor, and the gift of spirituality. He poses a critical question, "Would America have been America without her Negro people?"
